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DNA Examination Uncovers Fresh Understanding of the Identities of Pompeii’s Casualties

### Merging Genetic Insights with Archaeological Discoveries: reshaping the Narratives of Pompeii’s Casualties

The devastating eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, which engulfed the historic Roman city of Pompeii beneath layers of ash and pumice, has captivated historians, archaeologists, and the general public for centuries. The chilling plaster casts of the victims, captured in their final moments, have played a pivotal role in the popular stories surrounding the disaster. Nonetheless, recent breakthroughs in genetic research are calling into question many of these enduring beliefs, providing a more refined perspective on the individuals who inhabited—and perished in—Pompeii.

#### The Impact of Genetic Insights in Archaeological Research

For many years, archaeologists have depended on tangible evidence such as artifacts, skeletal remains, and architectural remains to reconstruct historical narratives. While these techniques have yielded critical insights, they frequently suffer from the biases and preconceptions of their time. The combination of genetic data with archaeological and historical context is now furnishing a clearer viewpoint to examine ancient cultures, enabling researchers to amend or enhance established narratives.

A recent publication in *Current Biology* serves as an illustration of this methodology. Researchers obtained DNA from the skeletal remains of several Pompeii victims, uncovering unexpected details regarding their heritage, family ties, and even physical traits. These revelations not only contest popular perceptions but also underscore the heterogeneous and cosmopolitan essence of Pompeii’s inhabitants, mirroring larger trends of mobility and cultural interchange within the Roman Empire.

#### The Plaster Figures of Pompeii: A Glimpse into History

The plaster figures of Pompeii’s victims, devised by archaeologist Giuseppe Fiorelli in the 19th century, have transformed into emblematic representations of the catastrophe. By pouring liquid plaster into the voids left by decayed bodies, Fiorelli and his team managed to capture the victims’ last moments in haunting clarity. More than 1,000 bodies have been unearthed from the ruins, with 104 plaster casts preserved. Yet, recent restoration initiatives have disclosed that several of these casts were altered to match the aesthetic standards of the time, raising concerns about the validity of interpretations derived from them.

For instance, CT scans and X-rays of the casts have indicated that bones were frequently extracted before casting, and metallic rods were sometimes included to reinforce the figures. Such modifications, combined with the cultural biases of previous eras, have played a significant role in shaping how archaeologists and the public have perceived the identities and relationships of the victims.

#### Genetic Research Questions Established Narratives

The recent investigation sought to evaluate some of these interpretations by examining the DNA of four victims discovered in the “House of the Golden Bracelet,” a location where archaeologists had traditionally believed a family—a father, mother, and child—had perished together. The positioning of the bodies, along with the discovery of a golden bracelet on one of the victims, reinforced this familial narrative.

However, the genetic investigation unraveled a different narrative. All four victims were male, including the one adorned with the golden bracelet, and none were genetically related. This outcome disrupts the conventional assumption that the victims constituted a typical family unit and implies they could have been unrelated individuals who took refuge together during the eruption. The DNA analysis also indicated that the victims possessed ancestry from North Africa or the Mediterranean, adding complexity to the portrayal of a uniform Roman populace.

In another scenario, the two bodies found intertwined in the “House of the Cryptoporticus” had long been presumed to be lovers, sisters, or a mother and daughter. However, DNA examination revealed that one of the remains was male, eliminating two of those possibilities. The male victim’s ancestry traced back to the Near East and North Africa, reinforcing the accumulating evidence of Pompeii’s varied population.

#### The Villa of the Mysteries: A Custodian or a Household Member?

The “Villa of the Mysteries,” renowned for its Bacchic frescoes, also provided significant genetic revelations. Archaeologists had hypothesized that a body discovered in the villa, adorned with an engraved iron and carnelian ring, was likely the custodian of the premises rather than a family member. Genetic analysis confirmed that this person was male and exhibited mixed ancestry, showcasing genetic markers from both the Eastern Mediterranean and Europe. This finding lends weight to the interpretation that the victim might have served as a servant or caretaker, as opposed to belonging to the affluent family that owned the villa.

#### Consequences for Archaeology and Historical Understanding

The synthesis of genetic data with archaeological findings carries profound ramifications for how we interpret historical events. As co-author David Reich, a geneticist at Harvard University, observed, “The scientific data we present do not universally coincide with prevalent beliefs.” He warned against the risks of imposing contemporary expectations surrounding gender, family, and social structures onto ancient civilizations. Genetic analysis thus advocates for a more scrutinizing approach to interpreting archaeological data, considering the intricacies and subtleties of antiquity.

Alissa Mittnik, another co-author of the study, underscored the significance of this multidisciplinary strategy.

“Major Transformations En Route in Space Policy”

### The Evolution of US Space Policy: Elon Musk, Donald Trump, and the Path Forward

The international space community encountered a new paradigm on Wednesday. Elon Musk, the mastermind behind SpaceX and arguably the most pivotal personality in contemporary space exploration, has adeptly utilized his resources, time, and sway to assist in re-electing Donald Trump as President of the United States. This turn of events has reverberated through the space sector, as Musk, already a frontrunner in Western space endeavors, now enjoys unparalleled access to the upper echelons of governance.

With SpaceX undertaking the launch of national security satellites, transporting NASA astronauts to the International Space Station, and managing a vast constellation of satellites, Musk’s impact on space policy is already considerable. Now, with his close association with Trump, Musk’s influence over the direction of US spaceflight could become even more significant. Though he may not occupy an official cabinet role, Musk is anticipated to have extensive responsibilities within the new administration, particularly concerning space and defense.

### A Transformative Phase in Space Policy: Musk’s Impact

Musk’s participation in the Trump administration brings forth pressing concerns regarding conflicts of interest. As the principal owner of SpaceX, Musk stands to gain enormously from any space policies that favor his enterprise. The New York Times recently highlighted that Musk has advised Trump to recruit essential personnel from SpaceX for his administration, including roles at the Department of Defense. This implies that Musk’s influence may not be confined to space policy alone but could extend into national security matters.

While such potential conflicts of interest are generally viewed unfavorably, Trump’s disregard for established political norms suggests that Musk’s role in space policy may remain unregulated. One strategy to navigate federal conflict-of-interest regulations could involve appointing Musk as a “special advisor,” a designation that would free him from certain legal stipulations.

Notwithstanding these apprehensions, Musk’s achievements in space exploration cannot be overlooked. His advocacy for reusable launch vehicles and satellite internet services has transformed the sector. In isolation, having someone of Musk’s caliber steering US space policy might not necessarily be detrimental. However, the political landscape in Washington, DC, is far from straightforward, and this complexity could hinder Musk’s aspirations.

### The Future of NASA: Streamlining or Disorder?

A crucial consideration for the incoming administration is the strategy for NASA. The US space agency has faced long-standing critiques about its bureaucratic sluggishness. NASA operates ten major field centers nationwide, each vying for funding and projects. This cumbersome framework has been a contentious issue for years, with former NASA Administrator Mike Griffin striving to tackle the problem through his “Ten Healthy Centers” strategy.

Musk has consistently expressed his desire to infuse efficiency into the US government, making NASA a prime candidate for reform. Consolidating the number of field centers and optimizing operations could lead to substantial cost savings. However, any move to shut down NASA centers would likely encounter staunch resistance from Congress, especially from legislators in states like Ohio, which hosts the Glenn Research Center.

NASA has seen enhancements in efficiency through its collaborations with private companies like SpaceX. By procuring commercial services instead of developing in-house systems, NASA has managed to cut costs and boost capabilities. Yet, this approach has sparked worries about SpaceX’s market dominance. Other private firms have struggled to keep pace with SpaceX, and Congress might hesitate to further bolster Musk’s company at the expense of traditional NASA initiatives.

### The Artemis Initiative: Moon or Mars?

One of the most pressing questions before the new administration pertains to the future of NASA’s Artemis Program, which seeks to return humans to the Moon. Launched during Trump’s initial term, the program has encountered various obstacles, including delays and budget overruns. Critics, such as Michael Bloomberg, have described the $100 billion initiative as a “colossal waste.”

While an outright termination of Artemis appears improbable, given its foundation under Trump’s tenure, Musk’s ambition for Mars could reorient the program’s priorities. Musk has been a longstanding proponent of sending humans to Mars and has reportedly informed Trump that achieving this milestone could be viable by the end of his second term in 2028. This would represent a noteworthy shift away from the “Moon-then-Mars” strategy that has characterized NASA’s human spaceflight efforts for the last decade.

A potential casualty of this strategic pivot could be NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, a crucial element of the Artemis Program. Musk has publicly criticized the SLS, viewing it as emblematic of governmental inefficiency. The SLS is costly, entirely disposable, and significantly less capable compared to SpaceX’s Starship rocket. If Musk has his way, the SLS may be relegated in favor of Starship, fundamentally altering the framework of the Artemis Program.

### Regulatory Changes and Commercial Space

Another domain where Musk and Trump are likely to find common ground is regulatory reform. During Trump’s first term, the administration sought to curtail regulations governing US businesses, including those in

Voice Behind AOL’s Famous “You’ve Got Mail” Alert Dies at 74

**The Heritage of Elwood Edwards: The Voice Behind AOL’s Famous “You’ve Got Mail”**

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Internet was in its early stages, with the world just starting to discover the potential of online communication. One of the most notable sounds from that time was the joyful voice proclaiming, “You’ve got mail!”—a phrase that became emblematic of America Online (AOL) and the dawn of the Internet. The individual behind that voice, Elwood Edwards, passed away on Tuesday at 74, leaving a legacy that shaped an era of online culture.

### The Beginnings of a Cultural Sensation

Elwood Edwards’ path to becoming the voice of AOL commenced in 1989, when Steve Case, then CEO of Quantum Computer Services (which would eventually become AOL), aimed to make the company’s online experience more relatable. Case sought to infuse a warm, human feel into the service, and it was Karen Edwards, Elwood’s spouse and a customer service representative at the firm, who recommended her husband for the job.

Edwards, a seasoned broadcaster, recorded multiple phrases, such as “Welcome,” “You’ve got mail,” “File’s done,” and “Goodbye,” using a cassette recorder from his living room. For this work, he received a modest payment of $200—a small fraction for what turned into one of the most recognizable sounds of the early Internet era.

### AOL’s Ascension to Prominence

Throughout the 1990s, AOL emerged as one of the largest Internet service providers in the United States, and Edwards’ voice reached millions of users daily. The “You’ve got mail” announcement morphed into a symbol of the thrill and anticipation that accompanied new emails, particularly during a time when dial-up modems served as the portal to the online realm.

In those days, users would connect to AOL via local phone numbers, with the familiar sound of the modem handshake followed by Edwards’ friendly greeting. For many, this became a daily ritual marking the start of their online journey.

### A Lingering Cultural Influence

The phrase “You’ve got mail” soon surpassed its initial intent and evolved into a cultural reference point. It appeared in numerous news articles, parodies, and even inspired the 1998 romantic film *You’ve Got Mail*, featuring Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan. Directed by Nora Ephron, the movie centered around the excitement of receiving an email, with Edwards’ voice playing a significant role in establishing the film’s atmosphere. The movie ultimately grossed $250 million globally, solidifying the phrase’s place in popular culture.

Apart from the film, Edwards’ voice became ingrained in the everyday lives of countless users. In 1995, Wired Magazine’s AOL forum even invited Edwards to record amusing sound bites, such as “You want fries with that” and “You’ve got credit card debt,” which still reside in the depths of the Internet Archive.

### Edwards’ Life Beyond AOL

Even though Edwards’ voice gained fame, his life remained relatively quiet. He worked behind the scenes at Cleveland’s WKYC Studios as a graphics expert, camera operator, and general production staff member from 2002 until his death. Despite his recognition, Edwards stayed humble, occasionally stepping into the limelight for special appearances.

In 2000, he made a cameo on *The Simpsons*, voicing a virtual doctor who announced, “You’ve got leprosy.” In 2015, he appeared on *The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon*, where he performed his signature greeting along with phrases suggested by the audience.

In his later years, Edwards became an Uber driver, where passengers were often astonished to learn that their driver was the voice behind one of the most recognizable phrases of the Internet era. Despite living a simple life, Edwards’ voice continued to greet users of AOL’s email service, preserving a link to the Internet’s early days.

### A Timeless Legacy

Elwood Edwards’ impact on the early Internet era is unforgettable. His voice became a symbol of the excitement and novelty of the online world during the 1990s and early 2000s. For millions of users, hearing “You’ve got mail” served as a daily reminder of the Internet’s possibilities—a realm where communication, information, and connections were merely a click away.

As the Internet progressed and AOL’s supremacy decreased, Edwards’ voice remained a nostalgic symbol of a simpler time in online history. His passing signifies the conclusion of an era, but his legacy will endure in the memories of those who lived through the early Internet days and in the cultural references that continue to resonate with his iconic phrase.

In a constantly evolving technological landscape, Elwood Edwards’ voice reminds us of the human touch that once characterized the online experience. His contribution may have begun with a $200 cassette recording, but it became a sound that defined