AllYouCanTech

“Deciphering a Cold War Mystery: Jimmy Carter’s Choice to Preserve the Space Shuttle Program”

**Jimmy Carter: The Unlikely Champion of the Space Shuttle Program**

The heritage of the Space Shuttle program, which lasted three decades, involved 135 missions, and included 355 astronauts, is fundamental to NASA’s narrative. However, few realize that its continuity rested on a crucial choice made by an unexpected supporter: President Jimmy Carter. Although he was generally indifferent toward human space exploration, Carter’s involvement during a critical moment in the late 1970s guaranteed the shuttle’s finalization and its eventual contribution to reinforcing U.S. space supremacy.

### A Program on The Edge

By the late 1970s, the Space Shuttle program was facing severe financial difficulties. Initially approved in 1971, the ambitious endeavor encountered escalating cost overruns and technical setbacks. The shuttle’s thermal protection tiles and main engines, among other elements, were delayed, compelling NASA to execute budgetary maneuvers to keep the initiative viable. By 1978, conditions had deteriorated to a critical level.

Chris Kraft, a pivotal figure in NASA’s legacy and then-director of the Johnson Space Center, recalled a fraught meeting in 1978 where the program’s troubling situation was exposed. NASA Administrator Robert Frosch, chosen by Carter, confronted two bleak alternatives: secure significant additional funding or downgrade the shuttle to a research vehicle, eliminating its intended function as an orbital delivery craft. Either option posed a risk to the program’s existence.

### Carter’s Unexpected Choice

Carter, recognized for his practical governance style, was initially wary of the shuttle program. In his presidential diary, he once remarked that the initiative was “a contrivance to keep NASA alive.” His vice president, Walter Mondale, was even harsher, denouncing the shuttle as a “foolish extravagance” during its early funding discussions.

Nevertheless, Carter’s viewpoint changed during the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev in Vienna in 1979. The president underscored the shuttle’s potential as an asset for arms control verification, accentuating its capacity to deploy reconnaissance satellites to observe Soviet adherence to the treaty. This strategic advantage, along with the program’s prospects for reinforcing U.S. space power, influenced Carter’s perception of its significance.

When Frosch approached Carter seeking extra funding, the president’s reply was unexpected: “How much do you require?” Carter sanctioned additional budgets for fiscal years 1979 and 1980, amounting to nearly $500 million. This prompt decision stabilized the program, enabling it to navigate its technical and financial obstacles.

### The Cold War Framework

Carter’s choice to back the shuttle was intricately linked to the Cold War geopolitical landscape. The shuttle’s capacity to carry national security payloads had been a crucial factor since the program’s inception, attracting support from the Department of Defense. By the late 1970s, this ability became even more vital as tensions with the Soviet Union intensified.

A memorandum from Brigadier General Robert Rosenberg of the National Security Council, titled “Why Shuttle Is Necessary,” highlighted the program’s strategic importance. Rosenberg asserted that halting the shuttle would represent a retreat of U.S. leadership in space and could damage national pride. Carter, who prioritized arms control and national security, found these points persuasive.

### The Impact of Carter’s Support

Carter’s backing for the shuttle was not devoid of inconsistencies. He continued to express skepticism about human space travel and favored NASA’s robotic and scientific initiatives. Yet, his practical decision-making helped secure the completion of a program that would evolve into an emblem of U.S. technological achievement.

The success of the Space Shuttle program laid the foundation for the assembly of the International Space Station (ISS), showcasing international collaboration in space. Ironically, the shuttle’s retirement in 2011 left the U.S. dependent on Russian spacecraft for access to the ISS, underscoring the intricate dynamics of competition and collaboration that characterized the Cold War space race.

### A Neglected Hero

Carter’s involvement in preserving the shuttle remains a largely unrecognized aspect of his presidency. As he reflected years later, “I didn’t want to waste the money already invested.” His practical mindset, coupled with an acknowledgment of the shuttle’s strategic significance, guaranteed the program’s longevity during a time of economic and political upheaval.

In retrospect, Carter’s decision to advocate for the shuttle was crucial in directing the course of U.S. space exploration. It enabled NASA to uphold its leadership in space, stimulated technological advancements, and set the stage for future initiatives like the ISS. For a president often associated with his commitment to peace and humanitarian efforts, Carter’s surprising role as a defender of the shuttle adds a compelling layer to his legacy.

“Ten Captivating Science Tales You May Have Missed”

### Investigating the Confluence of Science, Culture, and History: Ten Captivating Papers from 2024

As we approach the end of 2024, the year has yielded a wealth of compelling scientific findings and cultural revelations. From re-enacted battles of the Bronze Age to studies on the physics behind Spider-Man-like web-slinging, researchers have delved into a wide range of subjects that intertwine science, history, and the arts. Below, we explore ten notable studies that have fascinated scholars and the public alike.

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### 1. **Reenacting Bronze Age Spear Warfare**
Experts from the Netherlands have recreated Bronze Age spears and shields to investigate how ancient fighters may have engaged in combat. By collaborating with martial arts practitioners experienced in polearm techniques, they organized sparring sessions to examine wear patterns on the weapons. Their research indicated that these patterns closely resembled those found on archaeological artifacts, providing fresh perspectives on ancient combat skills and techniques.

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### 2. **The Physics of Ned Kahn’s Kinetic Artwork**
Physicists at Sorbonne Université studied Ned Kahn’s captivating kinetic facades that interact with wind to create eye-catching visual displays. Utilizing wind tunnel tests and video analyses, they investigated the underlying principles of these moving designs. The research revealed that the movement is influenced by natural resonant frequencies at lower wind velocities and pressure variations at greater speeds, enhancing our appreciation of the relation between art and physics.

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### 3. **Turbulence and Your Morning Brew**
Physicists investigating the shift from laminar to turbulent fluid flow stumbled upon an unexpected link to coffee brewing processes. The “sweet spot” in coffee extraction, where water flow maximally captures flavor from the grounds, parallels the behavior of turbulent “puffs” in pipes. These discoveries not only enhance our grasp of fluid dynamics but also demonstrate the connections between mundane occurrences and intricate scientific theories.

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### 4. **Network Analysis and Bach’s Compositions**
A group of physicists applied network analysis to the structure of Johann Sebastian Bach’s musical works. By modeling musical notes as nodes and transitions as edges, they measured the informational richness of various forms, including chorales and fugues. Their results indicated that Bach’s compositions convey intricate patterns to listeners through frequent repetition and patterns of transitions. This research paves the way for new insights into the cognitive processing of musical experiences.

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### 5. **Ethical Philosophy in Reddit’s AITA Forum**
The widely popular “Am I the Asshole” (AITA) subreddit served as a rich resource for moral philosophers examining everyday ethical challenges. After analyzing over 370,000 submissions, researchers pinpointed recurring themes such as relational missteps and omissions. They observed that moral assessments frequently hinge on relational context, with dilemmas involving romantic partners facing stricter scrutiny compared to those regarding parents. This investigation highlights the impact of social connections on moral choices.

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### 6. **Fractal Patterns in Mondrian’s Trees**
The domains of art and mathematics intersected in a study of fractal designs in tree illustrations across various artistic styles. Researchers discovered that Piet Mondrian’s abstract portrayals of trees displayed fractal scaling aligned with Murray’s Law, a principle explaining tree branching patterns. This revelation emphasizes how artists innately capture natural forms, bridging representational and abstract art.

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### 7. **Tracing George Washington’s Descendants Through Genetic Analysis**
Breakthroughs in DNA sequencing enabled scientists to pinpoint the remains of George Washington’s descendants, even from compromised samples. By employing next-generation sequencing and SNP analysis, they validated familial connections. This innovation holds significant potential for identifying remains from historical events and mass graves, as demonstrated in its usage for the victims of the 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre.

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### 8. **Web-Slinging Technology Inspired by Spider-Man**
Researchers at Tufts University’s Silklab created a biomimetic web-slinging apparatus that emulates Spider-Man’s renowned ability. By extruding silk fibroin proteins through a needle immersed in acetone, they formed fibers that harden upon exposure to air. Although these fibers lack the strength of genuine spider silk, they were able to lift objects successfully and may lead to groundbreaking applications in robotics and materials science.

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### 9. **Deciphering the Enigma of a 12th-Century Supernova**
Astronomers employed sophisticated spectrography to analyze the remnants of SN1181, a supernova documented in 1181 CE. They traced the movement of filaments emanating from a “zombie star” located at the heart of the nebula Pa 30, confirming its age and illuminating the asymmetrical ejection patterns. These insights provide a rare opportunity to understand the dynamics of ancient stellar explosions.

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### 10. **Recovering a “Lost” 16th-Century Musical Manuscript**
A fragment of polyphonic

“AI Accelerates the Demise of Low-Spec 8GB Models of Expensive PCs and Macs”

**AI’s Surprising Impact: The Emergence of 16GB RAM as the New Norm**

In the constantly changing landscape of technology, where fads often shine brightly before disappearing, generative AI has become a contentious topic. Some see it as a revolutionary advancement, while others consider it a bubble waiting to burst. No matter one’s perspective on the AI controversy, there is a noteworthy upside to the generative AI hype: it has unintentionally elevated the standard for computer memory, with 16GB of RAM now established as the benchmark for many mid-to-high-end PCs and Macs.

### The Dilemma of 8GB RAM in High-End Devices

For a long time, tech enthusiasts and experts have expressed frustration over the ongoing presence of 8GB RAM in high-end devices. It was not unusual to encounter laptops and desktops priced over $1,000—marketed as “professional” models—coming with just 8GB of memory. This was especially concerning in devices like Apple’s $1,599 M3 MacBook Pro or Microsoft’s Surface Pro 9, which were ostensibly built for power users.

The concern extended beyond mere performance. It was about ensuring longevity. While 8GB of RAM might be adequate for basic activities like web browsing or document editing, it soon turned into a limiting factor for more resource-heavy tasks such as video editing, software development, or even managing multiple tabs in a browser filled with modern, demanding web applications. Additionally, the trend of incorporating soldered memory in most current systems meant users had no option for later RAM upgrades, compelling them to make expensive choices during their initial purchase.

### The Advent of Generative AI and the RAM Shift

The surge in generative AI, particularly from tech giants like Microsoft and Apple, has unwittingly resolved this long-standing challenge. Microsoft’s Copilot+ program, for example, rolled out a suite of locally processed AI functionalities that necessitated a minimum of 16GB of RAM. This effectively established a new standard for PCs seeking the Copilot+ designation. In a similar vein, Apple discreetly upgraded the base RAM in its latest Mac models to 16GB, marking its first increase in over a decade.

While Apple’s decision wasn’t explicitly linked to any particular AI feature, it aligned with the launch of its Apple Intelligence platform. This implies that the company is preparing for future AI-driven features that may require—or at least operate more efficiently with—additional memory. Regardless of the motive, the outcome is beneficial for consumers, who now receive more RAM for the same investment, or, in some instances, lower costs for better RAM configurations.

### The Importance of Additional RAM

The advantage of a RAM upgrade lies in its broad applicability. Unlike a quicker CPU or a more robust GPU, which cater to specific scenarios like gaming or video editing, increased RAM enhances performance universally. Whether you’re a casual user balancing numerous browser tabs, a creative professional working with high-resolution images, or a developer utilizing virtual machines, greater memory results in a smoother, more efficient experience.

Furthermore, as software continues to evolve and become more resource-heavy, having extra RAM serves as a safeguard against future bloat. It guarantees that your device stays capable and responsive for years ahead, even as your requirements change or new applications are introduced.

### The Wider Repercussions

While the transition to 16GB as the new norm is a positive change, it mainly benefits mid-to-high-end devices. Budget PCs, especially those priced below $500, continue to be sold with 8GB or even 4GB of RAM. This discrepancy underscores the persistent challenges in making high-performance computing available to everyone.

Nonetheless, the trend initiated by brands like Apple and Microsoft could eventually extend to more budget-friendly devices. As production costs decrease and consumer demands increase, it’s reasonable to hope that 16GB of RAM will become the standard across all categories, not just within premium models.

### Conclusion: A Minor Triumph in the Age of AI

Generative AI may still face its share of doubters, and its long-lasting effects on society and technology remain ambiguous. Yet, one fact stands out: its impact has resulted in a concrete advancement in the hardware arena. By raising the RAM threshold for many devices, AI has inadvertently tackled a long-standing frustration for consumers and professionals alike.

In an age where technological advancements often seem like a double-edged sword, this represents a rare moment of clear progress. Whether you support AI or oppose it, there’s a reason to applaud this unexpected victory for computer users everywhere. After all, more RAM is an enduring benefit—regardless of how you choose to utilize your device.

How Your Brain Determines If Something Is Worth the Wait

# Comprehending the Brain’s Influence on Deciding When to Wait: Insights from Neuroscience

Waiting is a fundamental aspect of life, whether it involves queuing for coffee, dealing with traffic, or choosing to stay for a post-credits scene in a film. But what propels our capacity to wait, and why do some individuals appear more patient than others? Recent studies illuminate how particular areas of the brain affect our decision-making related to waiting, especially in circumstances where patience might yield greater rewards. This research, conducted by psychologist Joe Kable from the University of Pennsylvania, examines how brain injuries can influence the ability to discern when waiting is advantageous.

## The Psychology of Waiting: Beyond Just Self-Control

The choice to wait is not just a matter of self-discipline or willpower. It also requires assessing the potential value of a reward and deciding if it warrants the time invested in waiting. Kable and his team explored how injury to certain brain regions, notably within the prefrontal cortex, affects this decision-making process. Their results, featured in the *Journal of Neuroscience*, indicate that various regions of the frontal cortex play distinct roles in our ability to wait and adapt to changing conditions.

### Essential Brain Areas Relevant to Waiting

The research concentrated on three key regions of the prefrontal cortex:

1. **Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex (vmPFC):** This area is vital for decision-making, regulating actions, and memory. It aids individuals in estimating the subjective value of waiting for a reward.

2. **Dorsomedial Prefrontal Cortex (dmPFC):** This section is integral for managing cognition, emotion, and actions. It is especially significant for learning from previous experiences and adjusting behavior accordingly.

3. **Anterior Insula (AI):** This area is engaged in processing subjective emotions and feelings, which can impact decisions regarding perseverance or capitulation.

By examining individuals with lesions in these regions, researchers identified how impairment to each area influences waiting behaviors.

## The Study: Assessing Patience through Virtual Coins

To investigate the brain’s role in waiting, participants engaged in a computer-based task involving virtual coins. Here’s how the study was conducted:

– Participants were informed that a coin would appear on the screen and grow in value over time. Once the coin matured, it could be sold for a 10-cent reward by pressing the space bar.
– If participants opted to sell the coin before it fully matured, they would lose the 10-cent reward but could proceed to a new coin.
– Unknown to the participants, the coins were governed by two different maturation patterns:
– **High-Persistence Pattern:** Coins had the potential to mature at any time within 20 seconds, making waiting advantageous.
– **Low-Persistence Pattern:** Coins were unlikely to mature after two seconds, making prolonged waiting unhelpful.

The aim was to optimize earnings within a 12-minute window. This design allowed researchers to observe how participants modified their waiting behaviors according to the reward structure.

## Conclusions: The Influence of Brain Lesions on Waiting Behavior

The findings indicated notable disparities in waiting behavior between participants with brain lesions and their healthy counterparts:

1. **Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex (vmPFC) Lesions:**
– Participants with vmPFC damage showed less willingness to wait for rewards, even in cases where waiting was beneficial.
– Although they waited marginally longer in the high-persistence situation, their wait times were still shorter compared to healthy controls.
– Researchers propose that this stems from a reduced capacity to recognize the subjective value of waiting, resulting in these individuals concluding that waiting was not “worth it.”

2. **Dorsomedial Prefrontal Cortex (dmPFC) and Anterior Insula (AI) Lesions:**
– Participants with damage in these areas exhibited reduced sensitivity to the task’s time limitations.
– Their readiness to wait did not fluctuate significantly during the experiment, indicating challenges in learning from prior experiences.
– For instance, if they chose to quit before a coin matured, they were likely to repeat that behavior in future trials.

3. **Control Groups:**
– Participants with lesions in other parts of the frontal cortex and healthy controls demonstrated more flexible waiting behaviors. They adjusted their approaches based on the reward structure and were more adept at learning from past results.

## Significance for Mental Health and Decision-Making

This research emphasizes the complex interactions of various brain regions that contribute to our ability to wait and adjust to fluctuating conditions. The implications extend to a better understanding of mental health issues that hinder decision-making, such as ADHD, anxiety, and depression. For example:

– Individuals with ADHD may face challenges with impulsivity and find it hard to wait for rewards, possibly due to dysfunctional prefrontal cortex activity.
– Those experiencing anxiety may overestimate the

“Passkey Technology: Stylish Appeal, Yet Deficient in Usability for Security”

**Passkeys: The Future of Authentication or an Ongoing Development?**

As the festive season nears, the unavoidable tech-support marathon for tech-savvy relatives is also on the horizon. A frequent challenge that surfaces is account security—particularly, how to log in safely and consistently without becoming a target for phishing scams or data leaks. Introducing passkeys, a widely discussed substitute for passwords that has gained momentum over the last two years. Yet, are they really the revolutionary solution they were touted to be?

### What Are Passkeys?

Passkeys represent a password-free authentication approach founded on the FIDO2 and WebAuthn protocols. They leverage public-private key cryptography to deliver a secure and user-friendly login process. When you configure a passkey, a private key is securely kept on your device (such as a smartphone, computer, or USB security key), while a related public key is maintained on the website or app you are accessing.

Upon attempting to log in, the website sends a challenge to your device, which uses the private key to sign the response and send it back. The website then confirms the reply using the public key. This method eradicates the requirement for passwords, making it significantly more challenging for attackers to acquire credentials via phishing or data breaches.

### The Promise of Passkeys

Passkeys strive to address numerous persistent problems linked to conventional password-based authentication:

1. **Eradicating Password Fatigue**: Users are no longer burdened with the need to memorize or organize numerous (or endless) unique passwords.
2. **Improved Security**: Passkeys stand strong against phishing, SIM-swapping, and credential-stuffing attacks.
3. **Streamlined User Experience**: Logging in becomes as easy as using a fingerprint, facial recognition, or PIN.

Despite these benefits, the actual application of passkeys has not been without its flaws.

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### The Reality: Usability Hurdles

Though the core technology behind passkeys is sophisticated, their usability has been hampered by inconsistent implementations across platforms, browsers, and applications. Here are some significant challenges:

#### 1. **Disparate Ecosystem**
Passkeys are currently supported by numerous websites and across major platforms such as iOS, Android, Windows, and macOS. Nevertheless, user experiences differ significantly based on the operating system, browser, and application combination. For instance:
– The login process for PayPal using a passkey on Windows is distinct from that on iOS or Android.
– Certain websites, like LinkedIn, provide perplexing information concerning the browser or device employed to generate the passkey, complicating credential management for users.
– Some browsers, like Firefox, do not have support for passkey authentication on specific websites, further complicating the procedure.

#### 2. **Vendor Lock-In**
Numerous platforms, including Apple, Google, and Microsoft, heavily encourage users to save passkeys within their proprietary ecosystems (e.g., iCloud Keychain, Google Password Manager, or Windows Hello). This results in a “walled garden” effect, making it challenging to utilize passkeys across varying ecosystems. For example:
– A passkey generated on Chrome for macOS may not sync with Chrome on an iPhone unless additional measures are taken.
– Users frequently encounter prompts directing them toward the platform’s favored storage solution, with alternative options hidden beneath various menu layers.

#### 3. **Ambiguous User Interfaces**
The processes for enrolling and logging in with passkeys often come with unclear or misleading prompts. For instance:
– On macOS, users attempting to register a physical security key may be inundated with requests to create a passkey synced through iCloud instead.
– Dialog boxes often lack clear explanations of the available options, leading to user frustration and confusion about how to move forward.

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### The Security Trade-Offs

Although passkeys are crafted to be more secure than passwords, their present implementation frequently diminishes this assertion. Key concerns include:

#### 1. **Reverting to Passwords**
Most websites that support passkeys still require users to create a password as a backup option. This implies that even if you utilize a passkey, an attacker could potentially access your account by exploiting the fallback password.

#### 2. **Inadequate Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)**
A number of websites persist in relying on SMS-based MFA even after passkeys are set up. SMS remains one of the weakest types of MFA, as it is susceptible to phishing and SIM-swapping threats.

#### 3. **Cross-Platform Syncing**
While passkeys can be synced across devices using password managers or cloud services, this synchronization process is not always straightforward. For instance, syncing passkeys between Apple and Google ecosystems frequently involves cumbersome workarounds, such as scanning QR codes or manually transferring credentials.

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### The Role of Password Managers

For users navigating multiple platforms, password managers like 1Password, Bitwarden, or LastPass can serve as a valuable intermediary. These tools enable users to