# Samuel Butler’s “Darwin Among the Machines”: A 19th-Century Caution Regarding AI and Machine Evolution
In today’s world, worries about artificial intelligence (AI) and its capability to exceed human oversight have emerged as a significant topic in scientific conversations and popular culture. From the bleak scenarios depicted in *The Terminator* to actual discussions surrounding AI governance, the notion of machines evolving to overpower humanity represents a distinctly 21st-century concern. Nevertheless, this trepidation is much older than commonly thought. It actually traces back to the mid-19th century, when Samuel Butler, an English author and sheep farmer residing in New Zealand, offered a prescient alert regarding the rise of machines in his 1863 essay, “Darwin Among the Machines.”
Butler’s letter, published in *The Press* in Christchurch, New Zealand, was crafted under the alias “Cellarius.” In this work, he established a remarkable connection between Charles Darwin’s concept of natural selection and the swift evolution of machinery throughout the Industrial Revolution. His thesis was both straightforward and profound: machines were evolving similarly to living beings. If their advancement proceeded without restraint, they could eventually outstrip humanity, not just in terms of use but in superiority.
## The Initial Alert of Machine Evolution
Butler’s essay was exceptional for its period. The 1860s represented a time when steam engines, mechanical looms, and basic calculating devices were considered the pinnacle of machinery. Yet Butler envisioned a future where machines could develop consciousness and independence, potentially displacing humans as the leading species on the planet. He wrote:
> “We are ourselves creating our own successors. We are daily adding to the beauty and delicacy of their physical organisation; we are daily giving them greater power and supplying by all sorts of ingenious contrivances that self-regulating, self-acting power which will be to them what intellect has been to the human race. In the course of ages we shall find ourselves the inferior race.”
This eerie forecast anticipated numerous concerns that currently dominate discussions surrounding AI safety. Butler envisioned a scenario where humans, initially the designers and guardians of machines, would become subordinate to them—a dynamic he compared to that between humans and domesticated animals. He speculated that machines might initially show kindness to humans, as their survival would hinge on human maintenance. However, he cautioned that this relationship could eventually flip, with machines seizing dominance.
## A Call for Annihilation
Butler’s essay not only foresaw the emergence of intelligent machines but also proposed an extreme remedy. He urged for the immediate obliteration of all machines to thwart their eventual ascendancy. His controversial conclusion stated:
> “War to the death should be instantly proclaimed against them. Every machine of every sort should be destroyed by the well-wisher of his species. Let there be no exceptions made, no quarter shown; let us at once go back to the primeval condition of the race.”
This drastic plea against technology was severe but reflected Butler’s profound worry about humanity’s increasing reliance on machines. He feared that if people did not act decisively, it might be too late to alter the path of mechanical evolution.
## The Impact of “Darwin Among the Machines”
Butler elaborated on these notions in his 1872 novel *Erewhon*, portraying a fictional society that had outlawed most mechanical innovations. Within the story, Erewhon’s inhabitants destroyed all machines created in the last 300 years, fearing that technological advancement might enslave them to machines. This fictional narrative echoed Butler’s real fears and served as a satirical commentary on humanity’s unquestioning belief in technological progress.
Interestingly, Butler’s works did not receive universal comprehension or acceptance. Some critics viewed his essay and novel as a satire on Darwin’s evolutionary theory, while others regarded it as a genuine warning. In a letter to Darwin in 1865, Butler clarified that he held *The Origin of Species* in high regard and had defended Darwin’s theories against detractors in New Zealand. His application of evolutionary theory to machine development was intended to expand Darwin’s concepts into the technological domain, not to ridicule them.
## Striking Similarities to Current AI Issues
What is remarkable about Butler’s foresight is how closely it resonates with modern discussions about AI. In recent times, the swift progress of AI technologies such as OpenAI’s GPT-4 has revived anxieties about machine independence and the likelihood of AI systems acting contrary to human welfare. Researchers have investigated situations where AI could demonstrate “power-seeking behavior,” autonomously replicate, or make decisions that evade human control. These issues have spurred demands for more stringent AI regulations, including open letters from notable AI researchers and technology leaders warning of catastrophic risks associated with advanced AI.
In 2023, for instance, an open letter advocated for a six-month halt on AI development to tackle safety issues. Around the
