AllYouCanTech

Hornets Have a Distinct Capability to Quickly Break Down Alcohol, Stopping Intoxication

### Oriental Hornets: Nature’s Alcohol Aficionados

Numerous creatures, including humans, have cultivated a preference for alcohol in various forms, yet excessive intake often results in negative health consequences. Nonetheless, there exists a remarkable exception in the world of insects: the Oriental hornet. A recent study featured in the *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences* (PNAS) reveals that these hornets can ingest extensive amounts of ethanol—habitually and at extremely high levels—without experiencing any harmful effects. Astonishingly, they display no signs of intoxication or illness, even after prolonged alcohol intake. In fact, they appear to metabolize alcohol so proficiently that they surpass honeybees tested within the same trials.

#### Alcohol as a Metabolic Resource

“To our knowledge, Oriental hornets are the sole species in nature that have adapted to utilize alcohol as a metabolic resource,” remarked Eran Levin, a co-author of the research from Tel Aviv University. The hornets can consume significant volumes of alcohol and expunge it from their systems swiftly, evading the adverse effects that trouble other species, humans included.

This finding contests the dominant “drunken monkey” hypothesis, which posits that while certain animals have adapted to low levels of ethanol in their diets, they face negative reactions at elevated concentrations. For instance, tree shrews tolerate ethanol concentrations up to 3.8%, but higher levels can result in liver damage. Similarly, fruit flies manage up to 4% ethanol, but increased concentrations elevate their mortality rates.

#### The Experiment: Hornets vs. Honeybees

Levin and his research team executed a series of experiments to investigate how Oriental hornets metabolize ethanol and the implications of high alcohol consumption on their survival, lifespan, and behavior. They assessed the hornets’ tolerance to alcohol in comparison to honeybees, another insect species recognized for consuming ethanol in nature.

The researchers gathered colonies of Oriental hornets and honeybees from locations near Tel Aviv University. They then administered solutions with varying ethanol concentrations, spanning from 0% to 80%. To monitor the hornets’ alcohol metabolism, the team infused the ethanol with a heavy carbon isotope that converts to carbon dioxide (CO₂) during alcohol processing. By measuring the amount of labeled CO₂ produced, the researchers could ascertain the speed at which the insects metabolized the ethanol.

The outcomes were remarkable. The Oriental hornets metabolized ethanol at a notably quicker and greater rate than the honeybees. Unlike the bees, which exhibited signs of intoxication and impaired functionality, the hornets remained unaffected, even after ingesting high levels of ethanol. Their behavior, encompassing aggression and nest construction, remained stable, with no reduction in lifespan attributable to alcohol consumption. In stark contrast, the honeybees struggled to survive beyond 24 hours after intake of high ethanol levels, suffering significant impairments in cognitive function, foraging strategies, and movement.

#### Evolutionary Edge

The researchers speculate that the Oriental hornet’s alcohol tolerance may have developed due to its longstanding interaction with yeasts and other ethanol-producing microorganisms like fungi and bacteria. Social wasps such as the Oriental hornet naturally consume ethanol found in fruits and may inadvertently transfer yeast species like *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* during this process. The antimicrobial attributes of ethanol might confer an evolutionary advantage, particularly since hornets frequently gather carrion to nourish their larvae.

The research group also explored the Oriental hornet’s genome and discovered multiple copies of a gene that facilitates the production of an enzyme for alcohol breakdown. This genetic adaptation likely accounts for the hornet’s exceptional alcohol tolerance and may provide valuable insights into the metabolic mechanisms of alcohol in other organisms, including humans.

#### Implications for Alcoholism Research

The Oriental hornet’s distinct capacity to metabolize alcohol without adverse consequences positions it as a potentially valuable model for investigating the fundamental mechanisms behind alcohol tolerance and addiction. Gaining an understanding of how these insects efficiently process ethanol could pave the way for novel treatments for alcoholism and other alcohol-related disorders in humans.

This study unveils exciting new prospects for research into alcohol metabolism and its evolutionary importance. While the majority of animals, humans included, endure the detrimental impacts of excessive alcohol consumption, the Oriental hornet thrives on it, granting a rare insight into the intricate interplay between biology and alcohol.

#### Conclusion

The Oriental hornet’s remarkable ability to consume significant quantities of alcohol without becoming inebriated or suffering negative consequences serves as an extraordinary example of evolutionary adaptation. By researching these insects, scientists aim to reveal new understandings of alcohol metabolism that could significantly affect human health. For the time being, the Oriental hornet stands as nature’s unrivaled champion regarding alcohol tolerance.

—

**References:**

– Levin, E., et al. (2024). “Oriental hornets and ethanol metabolism.” *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences*. DOI:

CrowdStrike Asserts That Delta is Blaming Its Internal IT Issues on a Worldwide Outage

# Delta vs. CrowdStrike: A Legal Clash Over the IT Outage of 2024

The legal confrontation between Delta Air Lines and the cybersecurity firm CrowdStrike has officially commenced, signaling a pivotal moment in the aftermath of one of the most critical IT outages in recent memory. The argument revolves around a global IT failure in July 2024, which severely disrupted Delta’s operations and resulted in losses exceeding $500 million for the airline. As the courtroom proceedings take place, questions arise about whether Microsoft, another key entity involved in the incident, may also be subject to litigation.

## The Incident: What Transpired?

In July 2024, a problematic security update from CrowdStrike sparked a worldwide IT outage that impacted millions of computers, including those of Delta. The update was deployed despite numerous customers—including Delta—opting to disable auto-updates, leading to significant system failures. Delta’s workstations, servers, and redundancy systems were all compromised, resulting in the cancellation of around 7,000 flights over the span of five days.

CrowdStrike has since conceded that more thorough testing and a staggered rollout could have averted the situation. In response, the firm has implemented changes to afford customers greater control over updates and has vowed to ensure such an outage does not repeat. Nevertheless, Delta remains unsatisfied, accusing CrowdStrike of gross negligence and deceit.

## Delta’s Claims: An Instance of Deception?

In its legal filing, Delta asserts that CrowdStrike not only failed to avert the outage but also intentionally misled its clients. Delta alleges that CrowdStrike incorporated an unauthorized backdoor into its software, enabling it to circumvent Microsoft’s security certifications and modify Delta’s systems without the airline’s consent. Delta contends that it would never have accepted such a perilous process had it been fully counseled.

Moreover, Delta’s complaint purports that CrowdStrike prioritized profits over safety, cutting corners to present itself as a faster and more effective security provider compared to its competitors. The airline is striving to recoup its significant losses, which it blames on CrowdStrike’s neglect in adhering to standard industry best practices.

## CrowdStrike’s Argument: Blaming Delta

In contrast, CrowdStrike presents a different narrative. In its own court documents, the cybersecurity firm claims that Delta’s extended recovery from the outage was attributable to the airline’s own IT shortcomings. While other CrowdStrike clients managed to restore their systems within a single day, Delta faced delays for five days, affecting travel for over a million passengers.

CrowdStrike asserts that Delta did not abide by cybersecurity best practices, including those required by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA). The firm argues that Delta’s aging IT infrastructure, compromised login credentials, and issues related to its active directory environment led to the drawn-out recovery. CrowdStrike also contends that Delta failed to adhere to TSA’s cybersecurity emergency amendment, which was enacted in 2023 to ensure airlines could swiftly respond to IT system breaches.

## The Involvement of the TSA and DOT

The TSA has, thus far, refrained from commenting on any plans to look into CrowdStrike’s assertions regarding Delta’s non-compliance with cybersecurity regulations. Nonetheless, the Department of Transportation (DOT) has initiated its own inquiry into Delta’s customer service response during the outage. DOT Secretary Pete Buttigieg has underscored that Delta must fulfill its customer service obligations and comply with legal requirements. The DOT’s investigation could potentially result in financial penalties, further adding to Delta’s losses.

## Is Microsoft Next on the Chopping Block?

Delta has suggested the potential for litigation against Microsoft, which it initially blamed for playing a role in the outage. In an SEC filing in August 2024, Delta CEO Ed Bastian stated that the airline was pursuing legal claims against both CrowdStrike and Microsoft. However, the lawsuit that Delta filed in October 2024 does not name Microsoft as a co-defendant.

Microsoft has countered Delta’s claims, asserting it bears no responsibility for the outage. In correspondence to Delta’s legal team, Microsoft’s attorney, Mark Cheffo, contended that Delta’s public assertions blaming Microsoft were “false, misleading, and damaging.” Cheffo emphasized that Delta had repeatedly rejected Microsoft’s offers to assist in restoring its systems during the outage and indicated that the airline’s IT framework, rather than Microsoft’s services, was responsible for the prolonged recovery.

Microsoft has further alleged that Delta’s crew-tracking and scheduling system, which suffered the most during the outage, was managed by other technology providers, including IBM, and not by Microsoft’s Windows or Azure platforms. Consequently, Microsoft has signaled its intent to “vigorously defend” against any potential legal actions from Delta.

## CrowdStrike’s Terms of Service: Capping Liability

As the legal proceedings unfold, CrowdStrike is counting on its terms of service to limit its liability. The company maintains that even if Delta’s breach of contract claims hold merit, the terms of service dictate that damages are capped.

“The New York Times’ Incorporation of Generative AI in Journalism”

# How Large Language Models (LLMs) Are Supporting Journalists in Investigative Reporting

In the past few years, the emergence of advanced generative AI models has ignited discussions regarding their capability to replace human workers. Yet, these AI instruments are increasingly being utilized to enhance human skills rather than supplant them, particularly in domains such as investigative reporting. A recent illustration from *The New York Times* (NYT) highlights how large language models (LLMs) are becoming crucial tools for journalists charged with navigating extensive data sets, including leaked audio recordings.

## The Scenario of the Election Integrity Network Investigation

The NYT’s investigative report, titled

Techniques for Encoding Information into DNA Without Modifying the Base Sequence

# A Groundbreaking Technique for Encoding Data into DNA Utilizing a Single Enzyme

In our current data-centric era, we produce an incredible volume of information—zettabytes (10²¹ bytes) annually. Ranging from cat videos to scholarly articles, this data necessitates a storage solution. Conventional storage techniques, like hard drives and cloud computing, are having difficulty coping with this overwhelming quantity of information. This is where DNA comes into play—a biological compound recognized as a potential medium for information storage due to its exceptional density and enduring stability.

Recent developments in DNA data storage have marked a substantial advancement. A novel technique, outlined in a study published in *Nature*, enables individuals with a basic kit to inscribe data into DNA using only one enzyme. This innovation has the potential to completely transform our methods of data preservation and access, providing a more efficient and scalable alternative for future needs.

## DNA: The Pinnacle of Storage Solutions

DNA has consistently been acknowledged as an optimal choice for data storage. Its density is remarkable—just one gram of DNA could theoretically accommodate up to 215 petabytes (215 million gigabytes) of information. Furthermore, DNA’s stability spans thousands of years, rendering it a dependable choice for long-term data preservation. Indeed, scientists have successfully retrieved and sequenced DNA from long-extinct species, such as woolly mammoths, preserved for millennia.

Thus far, encoding information into DNA has adhered to nature’s design: intertwining the four nucleotide bases—adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G)—in specific arrangements to symbolize binary data. However, this method is both laborious and costly. As the length of the DNA strand increases, so does the possibility of errors, complicating the scaling process for vast quantities of data.

## An Innovative Strategy: Epigenetic Data Encoding

The newly introduced technique in the *Nature* publication adopts an alternative route by harnessing epigenetics, an additional layer of information that is superimposed on the nucleotide sequence. Epigenetics pertains to chemical alterations made to DNA that do not modify the foundational sequence but can affect how cells interpret and utilize the DNA. One prevalent epigenetic change involves modifying a cytosine (C) base when positioned before a guanine (G), resulting in a CG site.

Within cells, these alterations function as instructions, guiding the cell on when and how to utilize a specific DNA sequence. The creators of this new method discovered that they could leverage epigenetics to encode information within DNA without having to construct new sequences each time. This technique facilitates quicker and more effective data encoding.

### Typesetting with DNA

This procedure utilizes a lengthy DNA strand with a fixed sequence (the template) alongside a set of shorter DNA fragments (the bricks) designed to base pair with designated regions on the template. Some of these bricks possess epigenetically altered cytosines, while others do not. When a modified brick aligns with its corresponding location on the template, it prompts an enzyme to alter that position on the template DNA, effectively “printing” the epigenetic data onto the DNA without needing to create new sequences.

This operation resembles the arrangement of movable type in a printing press. The altered CG site pairs with a GC site on the complementary strand of DNA, and since the strands are oriented in opposing directions, the enzyme can identify and modify both strands at once. This capability allows for multiple bits of data to be inscribed simultaneously, considerably enhancing the speed of the operation.

## Epi-Bits: A Novel Data Storage Unit

The researchers designate each changeable site on the DNA template as an “epi-bit.” Within this framework, a modified site symbolizes a 1, while an unmodified site signifies a 0, akin to the binary system utilized in traditional computing. Since there is no requirement for new DNA synthesis, numerous epi-bits can be inscribed concurrently, optimizing the efficiency of the operation.

To access the stored data, the scientists developed a mechanism wherein modified sites (1s) emit fluorescence, while unmodified sites (0s) do not. The emitted fluorescence is analyzed as the DNA travels through a nanopore, enabling the simultaneous reading of the sequence and the epigenetic changes.

## Encoding Images in DNA

Employing this innovative technique, the research group, spearheaded by Zhang et al., established five DNA templates and 175 bricks to encode 350 bits of information simultaneously. By utilizing a series of tagged DNA templates, they managed to store and interpret approximately 275,000 bits of data. This collection included a color image of a panda’s face and a rubbing of a tiger from the Han dynasty, which governed China from 202 BCE to 220 CE.

In a controlled educational environment, 60 student participants of varied academic backgrounds received kits to store texts of their preference using epi-bits. Out of 15 texts stored, 12 were successfully retrieved, showcasing

Polestar Alerts That Wide Prohibition on Chinese Technology Might Affect Vehicles Manufactured in the US

# Polestar Confronts Ambiguity Amid Suggested US Prohibition on Chinese Connected-Car Technology

Polestar, the Swedish electric vehicle (EV) producer, has recently become embroiled in a contentious discussion regarding proposed US regulations that could profoundly affect its operations. While the company has progressed in enhancing its charging infrastructure—such as obtaining access to Tesla’s Supercharger network—its prospects in the US market might be threatened by new regulations aimed at Chinese-connected car software and hardware. Should these rules be implemented, they could effectively prevent Polestar vehicles from being driven on US roads, despite the company’s initiatives to decentralize production and decision-making beyond China’s borders.

## The Suggested Prohibition: Key Details

The proposed US regulation intends to prohibit Chinese connected-car software starting with model-year 2027 and Chinese connected-car hardware by model-year 2030. This initiative is part of a wider protectionist movement in US policy, targeting decreased reliance on Chinese technology and addressing perceived national security threats. The stipulation would be applicable to all automakers, including those linked to China, irrespective of their vehicle manufacturing locations.

Polestar, listed on NASDAQ and headquartered in Sweden, faces particular risk from these regulations. Even though the firm manufactures its Polestar 3 SUVs in South Carolina and plans to produce the Polestar 4 in South Korea, it maintains connections to China through its parent company, Geely, and employs around 280 staff members in China out of a global workforce of 2,800.

## Polestar’s Reservations Regarding the Proposed Regulation

Polestar has raised various concerns about the proposed regulation, which it articulated in a public comment directed to the US Commerce Department. One of the primary issues raised by the company is the expansive definition of “Chinese connected-car technology,” which it claims engenders “crippling uncertainty for businesses.” Polestar proposes that a more explicitly defined roster of prohibited technologies would aid automakers in comprehending and adhering to the mandates.

Another point of dispute is the rule’s emphasis on ownership rather than operational governance. Polestar contends that if a substantial portion of manufacturing or software development takes place outside of China, mere ownership by a Chinese organization should not serve as the deciding factor for enforcing the ban. The company underscores that its decision-makers are located in Sweden, and seven out of its ten board members hail from Europe or the United States. With this structure, Polestar argues that national security apprehensions regarding Chinese influence are exaggerated in its context.

## Wider Consequences for the Automotive Sector

Polestar is not the only car manufacturer that may be influenced by the proposed regulation. Major US players like General Motors (GM) and Ford could also encounter obstacles. Both firms currently import vehicles from China, including the Lincoln Nautilus and Buick Envision, which would fall under the prohibition. The US Commerce Department has already notified these manufacturers that they need to cease imports of these models should the rule be enacted.

The suggested regulations are part of a larger pattern of protectionist measures aimed at limiting Chinese influence in the US automotive market. Earlier this year, the revised **Clean Vehicle Tax Credit** excluded EVs manufactured in China or containing Chinese components from eligibility. Moreover, the US has applied pressure on Mexico to avoid providing incentives to Chinese automakers seeking to set up operations in North America. Chinese-produced EVs have also faced a 100% tariff since May 2024.

## Global Perspective: China’s Impact on the EV Sector

China’s local car market has been experiencing a downturn for several months, prompting the Chinese government to significantly subsidize its automotive industry’s exports. These subsidies form part of a broader initiative to establish dominance in the global EV sector, particularly concerning green technologies. Chinese EVs have begun gaining a foothold in Europe, leading the European Union to impose a 35.5% tariff on Chinese-manufactured EVs. Nonetheless, numerous European automakers have voiced concerns regarding possible retaliatory actions from China.

Polestar’s predicament reflects the wider challenges confronting manufacturers tied to China. As governments worldwide, especially in the US and Europe, strive to shield their domestic industries from Chinese competition, organizations like Polestar must navigate an increasingly intricate regulatory environment.

## Polestar’s Prospects in the US Market

In spite of these hurdles, Polestar remains dedicated to the US market. The company has already undertaken measures to localize production, with its Polestar 3 SUVs being assembled in South Carolina. Furthermore, Polestar drivers in the US now benefit from access to Tesla’s extensive Supercharger network, enhancing the brand’s attractiveness to American consumers.

However, the imminent risk of the suggested ban on Chinese connected-car technology could complicate Polestar’s ambitions. The company has urged the US Commerce Department to reevaluate the regulation’s reach, asserting that its Swedish headquarters and European management diminish any forthcoming national security risks. Whether these arguments will persuade policymakers remains uncertain.

## Conclusion

Polestar’s situation underscores the escalating tension between global supply chains and national security imperatives.

“The Physics of Snickers: Perspectives from a Confectionery Engineer”

# The Science Behind a Snickers Bar: The Process of Creating Airy Nougat and Chewy Caramel

It’s Halloween night. After a fun-filled evening of trick-or-treating, you spill your candy collection onto the table to evaluate your treasures. Amidst a plethora of sweets, one candy bar typically catches the eye—the Snickers bar. Composed of nougat, caramel, peanuts, and milk chocolate, Snickers has earned its place as a favorite among candy enthusiasts. Yet, have you ever pondered how this iconic candy bar is crafted?

As a food engineer focusing on candy and ice cream at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, I have dedicated years to studying the intricacies of confections. What appears to be a straightforward candy bar is, in fact, a sophisticated invention comprising several candy-making techniques. Let’s explore the science behind each element of a Snickers bar and uncover how they unify to form this cherished treat.

## Airy Nougat: The Core of a Snickers Bar

The nougat within a Snickers bar is a lightly aerated confection featuring tiny sugar crystals dispersed throughout. Nougat acts as the foundational layer of the bar, providing a delicate and fluffy texture that contrasts with the richer caramel and chocolate layers on top.

nougat is produced by beating sugar and egg whites together. The egg whites are vital for stabilizing the air bubbles that develop during whipping. These air pockets lend the nougat its signature lightness. The egg whites form a coating around these bubbles, preventing them from collapsing and allowing the nougat to keep its shape.

After the sugar and egg whites are whipped, a heated sugar syrup is gradually incorporated into the mixture. This step is succeeded by the careful inclusion of melted fat. As fat can lead to the collapse of air bubbles, it must be added gently to retain the nougat’s airy quality.

The concluding phase in the nougat preparation process involves the addition of powdered sugar. This powdered sugar serves as a catalyst for sugar crystallization, imparting a slightly gritty texture to the nougat. The presence of minute sugar crystals guarantees that the nougat separates cleanly when pulled apart, avoiding the stretching typical of caramel.

## Chewy Caramel: The Ideal Contrast

Resting atop the nougat layer is a band of chewy caramel, contributing a contrasting texture to the Snickers bar. Caramel stands out among confections since it includes dairy ingredients like cream or evaporated milk. These dairy elements are crucial for achieving the rich taste and chewy consistency of caramel.

Throughout the caramel production process, milk proteins interact with sugars in a series of chemical transformations known as Maillard browning. This reaction accounts for the caramel’s deep color and unique flavor. The Maillard reaction yields melanoidins, which provide color, along with a range of flavor compounds.

To create the perfect texture, caramel must be heated to a specific temperature—between 240°F and 245°F (115°C to 118°C). If the temperature exceeds this range, the caramel can turn hard and brittle. Conversely, if the temperature is too low, the caramel might become overly runny and fail to adhere appropriately to the nougat. In a Snickers bar, the caramel must maintain enough chewiness to secure the peanuts while also delivering a pleasurable bite.

## Chocolate Coating: The Finishing Touch

Enveloping the Snickers bar is its milk chocolate coating, which introduces sweetness and richness to the candy. Chocolate is derived from cocoa beans, which are extracted from cacao pods, fermented, dried, and roasted. The roasting stage is vital for developing the chocolate’s flavor, as it initiates the Maillard browning reaction, mirroring what occurs in caramel.

Once the chocolate is ready, it undergoes a process referred to as enrobing. During this step, the bare Snickers bar (nougat, caramel, and peanuts) is placed on a wire mesh conveyor and passes through a curtain of tempered liquid chocolate, ensuring an even coating on every side.

Tempering the chocolate is crucial for achieving the optimal texture and appearance. Properly tempered chocolate showcases a glossy sheen and provides a satisfying snap when broken. The flow of chocolate during enrobing must be meticulously managed to ensure the coating meets the desired thickness without unsightly “tails” at the bottom of the bar.

## The Engineering Precision Required for a Snickers Bar

Crafting a Snickers bar is no easy feat. Each component—nougat, caramel, peanuts, and chocolate—demands precise regulation of temperature, texture, and flavor. The amalgamation of these elements produces a candy bar that is both fulfilling and intricate.

With approximately 15 million Snickers bars manufactured daily, the production process must be exceptionally efficient and consistent. This necessitates a profound understanding of food science and engineering to guarantee that every bar upholds the same exceptional quality standards.

Therefore, the next time you indulge in a Snickers bar, take a moment to reflect on the science and artistry embedded in its creation. From the

Apple Introduces First Mac Mini Refresh in 14 Years, Similar to a Bigger Aluminum Apple TV

# Apple’s Latest Mac Mini: Compact Design, M4 Performance, and Improved Features

Apple’s most recent announcements regarding the Mac lineup have unveiled a major refresh for the Mac mini, the company’s least expensive desktop option. The updated Mac mini, equipped with the robust M4 and M4 Pro processors, showcases a newly designed, more space-efficient shape alongside numerous enhancements, making it an attractive choice for casual users and professionals alike.

## Fresh Aesthetics: Smaller and Stylish

The updated Mac mini unveils a new design, signifying its first substantial visual overhaul since the original aluminum model launched in 2010. The latest version is more compact, measuring 5×5 inches, a reduction from the earlier 7.75×7.75 inches. Nonetheless, it stands a bit taller at 2 inches as opposed to the previous 1.4 inches. This gives the new Mac mini a look that blends elements of both the Mac Studio and an Apple TV unit.

Even with its reduced size, the new Mac mini preserves an internal power supply along with an active cooling mechanism that includes a fan and heatsink. This ensures that the device maintains optimal temperatures and operates effectively, even under demanding conditions.

## Connectivity: Additions and Omissions

A striking change in the new Mac mini is its port arrangement. For the first time, the Mac mini features front-facing connections: two USB-C ports and a headphone jack. This enhancement is beneficial for those who regularly require swift access to ports for various peripherals.

However, the new design presents some drawbacks. The Mac mini no longer includes USB-A ports, which might inconvenience users dependent on older hardware. The rear now houses three Thunderbolt/USB-C ports (an upgrade from two in the prior M2 version), a full-size HDMI port, and a gigabit Ethernet port. Although the absence of USB-A may require additional adapters, the overall selection of ports remains flexible, particularly with the inclusion of front-facing USB-C options.

## M4 and M4 Pro: Driving the New Mac Mini

### M4 Chip: Entry-Level Powerhouse

The basic iteration of the new Mac mini is powered by Apple’s M4 chip, boasting 10 CPU cores (four performance cores and six efficiency cores) along with 10 GPU cores. This setup allows the Mac mini to accommodate up to three external displays—an enhancement from the dual-display limit seen with the M1 and M2 models.

Starting at $599, the M4 Mac mini comes with 16GB of RAM and 256GB of storage. This marks the first increase in base RAM for Apple’s entry-level Macs since 2012, positively impacting overall performance. For those needing greater storage, a $799 variant provides 512GB SSD storage, while a $999 configuration includes 24GB of RAM.

### M4 Pro: Connecting to Mac Studio

For individuals requiring added power, the M4 Pro version of the Mac mini begins at $1,399. The M4 Pro chip delivers up to 14 CPU cores (10 performance cores and four efficiency cores) alongside up to 20 GPU cores. The standard M4 Pro variant comes equipped with 12 CPU cores and 16 GPU cores, but users can opt for the fully unlocked version for an extra $200.

Additionally, the M4 Pro supports a wider range of memory and storage options. It starts with 24GB of RAM, with the possibility of upgrading to a maximum of 64GB of RAM. Storage configurations range from 1TB to 8TB, although higher storage choices come at a significant premium, with the 8TB upgrade adding an additional $2,400.

### Thunderbolt 5: Accelerated Connectivity

A key feature of the M4 Pro Mac mini is its compatibility with Thunderbolt 5, boasting a theoretical transfer rate of 80 Gbps—double that of Thunderbolt 4. This makes the M4 Pro particularly suitable for users needing high-speed data transfers, such as video editors and creative professionals. Furthermore, Thunderbolt 5 ports support DisplayPort 2.1, allowing the Mac mini to handle up to three 6K displays at 60 Hz.

## Adaptability and Personalization

The Mac mini continues to be a “bring your own” device, requiring users to provide their own monitor, keyboard, and mouse. This design renders the Mac mini exceedingly adaptable, as it can be paired with anything from Apple’s premium Studio Display to an economical 1080p screen. This versatility enables users to customize their setup according to their specific requirements and budget.

Despite its more compact dimensions, the new Mac mini remains a powerful desktop solution capable of managing a broad array of tasks, from routine computing to more intensive professional projects. Its streamlined design also facilitates easier integration into any workspace, whether that be a home office or a professional studio.

## In Summary: A Significant Upgrade

NASA Maintains Secrecy on Orion Heat Shield Concerns

### NASA’s Orion Heat Shield Challenge: Its Impact on Artemis II

NASA’s Artemis initiative, which seeks to bring humans back to the Moon and ultimately facilitate Mars exploration, has encountered a notable technical hurdle. The heat shield of the Orion spacecraft, essential for astronaut safety during reentry, did not perform as anticipated during the uncrewed Artemis I mission in late 2022. This development has raised alarms for the upcoming Artemis II mission, scheduled to transport astronauts around the Moon in 2025.

#### The Heat Shield Issue

The Orion spacecraft, constructed by Lockheed Martin, successfully carried out its 25-day Artemis I mission, encompassing a lunar orbit and a splashdown in the Pacific Ocean. Nevertheless, the heat shield, intended to protect the spacecraft from the severe temperatures experienced during atmospheric reentry, displayed unforeseen behavior. The heat shield, crafted from a material known as Avcoat, was expected to gradually erode during reentry. Contrary to that expectation, it cracked and chipped, forming cavities akin to potholes.

While the spacecraft made a safe return to Earth, and astronauts would have been unharmed had they been on board, the heat shield’s performance fell short of engineers’ forecasts. This inconsistency is particularly troubling since one of Artemis I’s key purposes was to confirm the heat shield’s efficacy. In human space travel, even slight variations from expected performance can lead to serious safety concerns.

#### NASA’s Inquiry

NASA has been examining the fundamental cause of the heat shield problem for over a year. In March 2023, the agency acknowledged the issue for the first time, but it wasn’t until May 2023 that images of the damaged heat shield were publicized, following a report by NASA’s Inspector General. Since then, NASA has performed comprehensive testing, including simulations at the Ames Research Center’s arc jet facility, which can replicate the harsh conditions of atmospheric reentry.

As per Lori Glaze, acting deputy associate administrator for NASA’s Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate, the agency has pinpointed the root cause of the heat shield erosion. Engineers have validated this finding through testing, but NASA has yet to make the specifics public. Glaze mentioned that the agency is still assessing the repercussions for Artemis II and anticipates providing more details by the end of 2024.

#### What’s at Risk for Artemis II?

Artemis II holds great significance for NASA, as it will mark the first crewed flight of the Orion spacecraft. The mission will send a four-member crew around the far side of the Moon and back to Earth, denoting the first venture by humans beyond low-Earth orbit since the Apollo era. In light of the heat shield’s performance during Artemis I, NASA must now evaluate whether it is safe to use the existing heat shield for Artemis II or if alterations are warranted.

The heat shield for Artemis II has already been constructed and fitted onto the Orion spacecraft. Implementing changes at this juncture would necessitate disassembling parts of the spacecraft, potentially delaying the mission by a year or longer. NASA is currently deliberating on whether the current heat shield can adequately protect the crew or if modifications are essential. Engineers are considering methods to lessen the heat shield’s stress during reentry by adjusting the spacecraft’s entry angle, but no conclusive decision has been reached.

#### The Broader Perspective: Delays and Revisions

The heat shield challenge is not the sole obstacle confronting Artemis II. NASA has already delayed the stacking of the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, which will launch Orion into space. This postponement is partly attributed to the unresolved heat shield issue, as NASA prefers to wait for a definitive plan before proceeding with the rocket assembly. Once the SLS rocket is stacked, it has a limited timeframe on the launch platform before the solid rocket boosters need replacement.

Additionally, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) has expressed concerns regarding whether the ground systems at Kennedy Space Center will be prepared for a September 2025 launch. These elements, combined with the uncertainty surrounding the heat shield, increase the likelihood that Artemis II will experience delays beyond its current target date.

#### Looking Forward: Consequences for Future Artemis Missions

The heat shield dilemma may have broader ramifications for the entire Artemis initiative. Should NASA determine that the existing heat shield design is unsuitable for crewed missions, a redesign may become necessary. This would not only impact Artemis II but might also postpone subsequent missions, including Artemis III, which aims to land astronauts on the Moon for the first time since 1972.

Lockheed Martin, tasked with constructing the Orion spacecraft, is already under contract to deliver capsules for missions up to Artemis VIII. NASA plans to begin reusing Orion capsules starting with Artemis VI, with the first flight not anticipated until the early 2030s. Any alterations to the heat shield design could disrupt the production timeline for these upcoming missions.

#### Conclusion: A Critical Choice Approaches

NASA is confronted with a crucial decision

“Lidar Technology Reveals Historic Elevated Cities Along the Silk Road”

### The Neglected Cities of the Tien Shan: Revealing Concealed Urban Centers Along the Silk Road

The Silk Road, an extensive web of ancient and medieval trade routes, bridged the East and West, connecting cities like Beijing with Constantinople, and Hangzhou with Cairo. Although much of the historical interest has been concentrated on the network’s endpoints—China and Europe—numerous other cultures and urban areas played essential roles in the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies. One such disregarded region is the Tien Shan mountains, which, contrary to being a mere hurdle for traders to navigate, were home to vibrant cities that greatly enhanced the Silk Road economy.

Recent archaeological finds, supported by advanced technology such as drone-based lidar, have uncovered that the Tien Shan mountains were not simply a hindrance but a thriving center of trade and culture. Cities at these high altitudes, like Tashbulak and Tugunbulak, were more extensive and intricate than many contemporary European cities, reshaping our understanding of medieval commerce and urban development.

### The Tien Shan: A Mountainous Crossroads

The Tien Shan, the largest east-west mountain range on Earth, extends across present-day Central Asia, encompassing areas of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan. For centuries, these mountains were viewed as a daunting barrier that Silk Road traders needed to navigate, circumventing the perilous Taklamakan Desert. However, recent investigations led by anthropologist Michael Frachetti from Washington University in St. Louis have overturned this belief.

“People believed these mountains were merely obstacles the caravans traversed and not significant contributors to commerce themselves,” asserts Frachetti. His team’s findings have shown that the Tien Shan hosted large, advanced cities, some of which were situated over 2,000 meters above sea level, akin to renowned high-altitude cities like Machu Picchu or Lhasa.

Among the most astonishing discoveries is Tugunbulak, a city that surpasses Siena, one of the most significant city-states in medieval Italy. Tugunbulak, along with cities such as Tashbulak, was vital in aiding Silk Road merchants as they navigated the dangerous mountain pathways.

### Into the Mountains: A Revised View on the Silk Road

The Silk Road was not a singular, well-established route, but rather a convoluted network of trails that enabled the exchange of goods between East Asia and Europe. While the roots of this trading system can be traced back to the Bronze Age, it reached its zenith during the medieval period, between the 6th and 11th centuries.

For merchants of the medieval era, the journey along the Silk Road was challenging and could span up to a year. One of the most difficult segments of this journey was navigating the Tien Shan mountains. Nonetheless, these mountains were not merely a blockade; they housed prosperous cities that offered crucial resources and services to merchants.

Frachetti’s team has dedicated years to examining the Tien Shan, viewing the mountains not solely as an obstruction but as a source of social and economic interaction. This research led to the identification of Tashbulak, a medium-sized settlement situated at the western edge of the Tien Shan range in modern-day Uzbekistan. Tashbulak, sitting at an altitude of 6,500 feet, featured a citadel, dense urban structures, and city walls surrounding 98 buildings.

### Tugunbulak: An Uncovered Metropolis

Although Tashbulak was an important find, it was merely the beginning. In 2015, while analyzing pottery shards at the Tashbulak site, Frachetti encountered a local forest inspector who mentioned discovering similar pottery near his residence. This led to the revelation of another medieval city, Tugunbulak, hidden beneath the rugged landscape.

Utilizing lidar-equipped drones, Frachetti’s crew mapped the region, unveiling a vast city with walls that encompassed 120 hectares—nearly five times the size of Tashbulak. For perspective, the medieval walls of Siena enclosed an area of 105 hectares at the peak of its influence, while Genoa’s walls safeguarded only 20 hectares during the same time frame.

Tugunbulak emerged as a sprawling urban center with hundreds of buildings, streets, palaces, plazas, and even industrial complexes that may have been involved in iron or steel production. The city’s magnitude and sophistication indicate that it was a significant political and economic hub in the area, playing a pivotal role in the larger Silk Road economy.

### A City of Iron?

One of Tugunbulak’s most fascinating elements is its possible involvement in iron manufacturing. The nearby mountains are plentiful in iron ore, and Frachetti’s team suspects that the city served as a center for blacksmithing and metalwork. However, many questions persist regarding the lives of the city’s residents and their lifestyle.

“Did they live